Human Resources as an important asset for companies

Human Resources as an important asset for companies The human resources are the most important assets of an organization. The success or failure of an organization is largely dependent on the caliber of the people working therein. Without positive and creative contributions from people, organizations cannot progress and prosper. In order to achieve the goals or the activities of an organization, therefore, they need to recruit people with requisite skills, qualifications and experience. While doing so, they have to keep the present as well as the future requirements of the organization in mind. Recruitment and selection, as a part of effective Human Resource Management is the key to achieving a competitive advantage for an organization. Nowadays, one of the most important concerns for all the business is that of people. The emphasis is on having the right people in the right place at the right time (Lanz, 1988). Seeking new employees is an essential element for each employer, not only in organisations where particular emphasis is placed on the companys human resources policy. Each employer wants to hire the most appropriate candidate for the job who not only has the right qualifications but whose personality will blend in well with the companys structure. The choice of the right people to form a team in organization is one of the most important factors leading to its success. Hence, to achieve this, a company has to pay a huge attention on the recruitment and selection process. Effective recruitment and selection procedures are vital in attracting and retaining high quality staff so every company should take them deeply into consideration. Moreover, human errors are much more expensive in comparison to such assets as land and capital, and often result in serious irreversible consequences. Here I need to add what are the goals of this dissertation I thinkà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.and what Ive included in a first chapter, secondà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ RECRUITMENT AND SELECTION Definitions of recruitment and selection Conducting business activities and competition between companies in developing international markets show, that Human Resource Management is the source of permanent competitiveness in contemporary business. This domain is not a single, simplified function, but a group of plans, systems, tools, processes and services. Each of these elements provides huge possibilities for profit, provided that one can use effective solutions in exploiting them. As the field of Human Resource Management has strongly changed in recent years, organizations were obligated to become more dynamics and complex. John Storey (2001, p.6) says that It is human capability and commitment, which in the find analysis distinguish successful organization from the rest. This sentence is essential to understand the fundamental tensions and ambiguities associated with Human Resource Management. People are non-material assets of a company and due to their importance have a strategic function. For that reason, recruitment and selection process should be permanent implicated and developed in company structures. According to Pilbeam Corbridge (2006) recruitment and selection process is based on action between applicant and job, which is dependent on stating a need by an organization, using the most appropriate recruitment and selection techniques and on reviewing, evaluating and modifying the recruitment and selection system in the light of experience. Bratton Gold (2003) defined recruitment like a process of generating a pool of capable people to apply for employment to an organization. Furthermore recruitment is a process of attracting individuals on a timely basis, in sufficient numbers and with appropriate qualifications, developing their interest in an organization and encouraging them to apply for jobs within it (Mondy Noe, 1993; Crawford, 2004). During this process, efforts are made to inform the applicants fully about the selection criteria of the required competencies that will lead to effective performance, as well as career opportunities the organization can provide the employee. Whether or not a particular job vacancy will be filled by someone from within, or outside, the organization depends on the organizations human resource policies, the requirements of the job to be filled, the talent to be found and, often, the organizational politics surrounding the decision (Nankervis et al., 2002). Beardwell (1994, p.192) als o indicates that the process of recruitment has two important purposes. Firstly, recruitment should focus on both attraction and retention of the interest of applicants suitable for a given job. Secondly, it should create a positive image of the organization in the eyes of people who come in contact with it. Newell and Shackleton (2000, p.113) define recruitment as the process of attracting people who might make a contribution to the particular organization. The importance of the recruitment function is clear when one realizes that by hiring the most competent applicants the firms performance can be significantly enhanced. In the course of this stage, it is the employer who must encourage the best candidates to apply for a position in the company. Selection is the process of selecting candidates who have relevant qualifications to fill jobs in a company (Mathis, R., 1991, p. 209). For the employer it is a stage during which decisions are made on who is the most appropriate of all the job applicants. The key point of selection is how to make fair and relevant assessment, which indicates strengths and weaknesses of applicant (Boxall P., Purcell J., 2003, p.141). Conversely, the quotation by Townley (1999, p.97) defines the notion of selection in that (à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦) by definition, it involves a process of discrimination, and the opportunity for managers to emphasize employee acceptability or the good bloke syndrome, rather than suitability residing in task-based criteria. It is a much diversified process: it may be short and simply boil down to reviewing and closely reading job application documents, and hiring a person. Or it may be a longer process also including a job interview and other techniques aimed at finding the best people. Pilbeam Cordbridge (2006) assert that good recruitment and selection is important element of the HR strategy, its forecasting requirements and a key to getting the appropriate people to attain a business goals. Moreover, recruitment and selection is a necessary element of people resourcing strategy, due to communicated policies, procedures and practices can considerably play a part in effective organizational performance, (à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦) to good employee relations and to a positive public image (Pilbeam Corbridge, 2002). Both the activities are directed towards obtaining suitably qualified employees. Recruitment activities lay the groundwork for the selection process by providing the pool of applicants from whom the selectors may choose. Although, the two activities are closely connected, each requires a separate range of skills and expertise, and may in practice be fulfilled by different staff members. Recruitment and selection are the most important activities in an ongoing cir cle (shown in Fig.1.1) of an organisation as a whole. Figure 1. Recruitment and selection in an organization (Pilbeam Corbridge 2006, p.143) Inappropriate selection and recruitment decisions can have a range of undesirable consequences for the organization and the recruit, including: reduced organizational effectiveness, invalidate reward and development strategies, unfair for the person applying for job and higher rates of turnover. Recruitment and selection are one of the most fundamental elements of the strategy of human resources managing. A wise choice of employees plays a key role in the functioning of an organization. Framework: Recruitment Selection Recruitment and selection are works of the same system and they are so closely connected, although as Foot Hook (cited in Rayner Smith, 2005 p.121) suggest that each requires a separate range of skills and expertise, and each function may in practice be fulfilled by different staff members, or indeed the recruitment function, but not normally the selection decision, may be outsourced to an agency, so it makes sense to treat each function separately, but Pilbeam Corbridge (2006) note that they are not mutually exclusive functions. Hence is many approaches to recruitment and selection tend, however they distinguish that a system has inputs, which are the candidates, a processing unit, which consists of various methods and techniques and outputs, which are also effective employees or candidates, who go back to the labour market and are or eliminate by the recruiters or choose to exit from the process. As Figure 1.2 shows, the recruitment and selection process and techniques are influ enced by the external factors like legal framework, economic situation, social and demographic changes, competitor activity, labour market characteristics and has some sub-systems to it which are interdependent to each other, changes in one will effects the others and also the quality of output. According to Pilbeam Corbridge (2006) theory the systems approach gives an analytical skeleton and allow diffusion through the selection and recruitment sub systems, which are: attraction, reduction, selection and transition. Whereas Kochan Barocci model (cited in Beardwell, Holden Claydon, 2004) point out that organizations have life cycles, and that recruitment, selection and staffing policies vary according to an organizations perceived stage in the cycle. While Goold and Campbell conclude that human resource strategies depend on management profile, whether is it strategic planning, financial control or strategic control (ibid.). Furthermore Anderson and Shackleton (1998, p.15) notice that recruitment and selection as a system is (à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦) comprised of a series of inter-related components. Important observation about the maxim of chronological dependency, says that it can only be as accurate as decision made in early stage to pre-screen down number of applicants. They emphasize that assessment techniques should predict and also affect on the future performance of employee. It is important here, to say that Human Resource Planning (HRP) is connection between strategic business planning and strategic Human Resource Management. This connection is the most visible in the recruitment and selection of specific numbers of employees with particular abilities, which match to companys requirements. This view made by Paul Iles (2001, p.139) shows why employees, as the most valuable assets in company, should be align to strategic business plan. Nowadays is a lot of variations in recruitment and selection practices, reflecting an organizations strategy and philosophy towards the management of people. That is why many organizations developed frameworks, which allowed them approve a variety of selection and recruitment techniques in order to identify and confess the right people (Bratton, J. Gold, J., 2003, p. 223). Figure 2. The System Approach to recruitment and selection (Pilbeam Corbridge, 2002), p. 115. Process of recruitment and selection Recruiting is an extremely complicated process consisting of many phases. Before recruiting, the company needs to proceed with planning phase. Each organization thus must consider a number of important steps in the planning phase. Firstly it should forecast human resource needs, than specifies job requirements as well as identifies and uses appropriate recruitment channels (Beaumont, P., 1994, p. 57). When planning to recruit one should also include: discussions with clients to predict future hiring needs; maintenance of a contacts network (candidates, employees, competitors); development and maintenance of a strong employee referral program; investment in recruiter training and development; cooperation with management to ensure adequate budget (American Management Association International, Aug 2006, p.10). The command to start the recruitment process comes from senior managers and should be based on a review of the situation to determine that recruitment actually exists. It means, that it should be made recognition of the needs for new human resource. To minimize the risk of wasted money, job analysis should be well done. For the first, job description should be written very carefully. A job description makes it possible for the recruiter to outline what duties, responsibilities and the reason behind the vacancy i.e. expansion, member of staff retires, and the position within th e structure of the organization (Beardwell, I., 1994, p. 195). The first step in the development of a job description is to establish the purpose and general objectives of the post, and then to analyse the requirements of the job. This process is called job analysis, and is particularly important in circumstances where you are preparing a job description for a new or significantly changed post. Job analysis helps to clarify the duties, responsibilities and other job demands. It also helps to identify the skills, abilities and experiences that someone would need to possess to be able to perform satisfactorily in the role (UCD Staff Manual, August 2005, p. II). The process of writing a job description can be very time consuming, especially if company dont provide any system for job analysis. This involves other co-worker from department in context to collect essential information about business nature and actual duties. To accurately recruit candidates, the second part of job analysis personnel specification is required (Beardwell J., 1994, p.195). Person specification is amongst one of the important factor of recruitment and selection that comes after the job analysis and job description as it relates to the person doing the job. Job analysis is the first stage of the whole recruitment and selection process and everything else is built upon it. It aims at finding out what is involved in the job that is now vacant. The effects of a mistake at this point are likely ricochet throughout all subsequent stages whereas job description involves the task and the scope of the job. The person specification profile is the people characteristics required to do the job effectively. The fact that an employer draws up a person specification demonstrates an attempt to introduce some objectivity into what can otherwise be very subjective process. Rather than relying on personal judgements about the knowledge, skills and qualities the successful candidate should possess, the emp loyer with a person specification is following much more methodical and reasoned process. The person specification can be included with the information sent to the candidates to give them more detail about the requirements. It is a good practice to design and send to candidates a form showing each requirement and how it will get assessed (Foot Hook, 2005). Two well-established systems of person specification frameworks discussed by Beardwell and Claydon (2004, p. 205) are (Roger, 1952) seven-point plan and (Munro Fraser, 1954) similar five point plan, illustrated in Table.1.1 and 1.2. It is important to be as precise as possible about the skills, knowledge, qualifications and attributes that are required for the job and about the experience and personal characteristics that are needed. It is good practice to specify what is essential or the minimum required to perform the job, as well as what is desirable. It is also necessary to think about the context of the job and the wider org anisational requirements to specify any elements of person-organisation fit that are important. Munro Fraser (1954) Impact on others: physical make up, appearance, speech, and manner Acquired qualifications: education, vocational training, work experience Innate abilities: quickness of comprehension and aptitude for learning Motivation: individual goals, consistency and determination in following them up, success rate Adjustment: emotional stability, ability to stand up to stress and ability to get on with people Table 1. Person specification framework (ACAS cited in Beardwell Claydon, 2004). Rodger (1952) Physical make-up: health, appearance, bearing and speech Attainments: education, qualification, experience General Intelligence: Intellectual capacity Special Aptitudes mechanical, manual dexterity, facility in use of words and figures Disposition: acceptability, influence over others, steadiness, dependability, self-reliance Circumstances: any special demand of the job, such as ability to work unsocial hours, travel abroad Table 2. Person specification framework (ACAS cited in Beardwell Claydon, 2004). When the process of job analysis has been completed and clearly identified, the next step in recruitment process is to attract quantity of suitable applicants with desired features. Company should consider some factors, like companys budget, level of vacancy, time and selection technique in order to choose the right way in recruitment process. Larger companies generally have a larger budget and are more able to find the best candidates for the job. Effective use of recruitment tools depends on the available budget. This due to the fact that recruiting is expensive and the more selection techniques used the higher the cost to the company, but in doing this the company has a better chance of finding the best candidate. The cost of recruitment and selection is not the only cost the company has to include in its calculation searching new candidates. The other costs the organization should take into consideration are costs of training selected candidates to undertake contributing role to the organization as well as the costs of recruiting and selecting the à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¾wrong person (Cornelius, N., 1999, p. 29). Every company should adapt recruitment and selection costs to its policy, capabilities and vacancy and on this basis consider if to recruit internally or externally. Furthermore the level of vacancy is another one of the factors a company should consider before choosing a specific method of recruitment and selection. The decision making process is stipulated by individual needs of a company. In order to start the process of recruitment a company should have free vacancies. In fact, managers should decide if a free capacity either proves to be a job opportunity for a potential employee or whether there is an alternative option to resolve the situation. Hence, recruitment and selection processes should not be taken, when there is another opportunity, like reassigning the task to other employees or automated task, so than human resource are no longer required. We need to notice, that the higher level of vacancy provides more sophisticated methods of recruitment (Newell, S., Shackleton V. 2001, p. 25). Another concerning question a company should frankly answer is what kind of selection technique they need to apply, i.e. the one which may facilitate effective employment. A company should frankly answer the question concerning the kind of selection technique they may need to apply, i.e. the one which may facilitate effective employment. Bratton (2003, p.227) notes that appropriate selection technique should recognize the way in which people differ and must be extended to a prediction of performance in the workplace. The twenty-first century organization of work has lost a variety of available methods which give credibility to techniques that attempt to measure peoples attitudes and overall personality. The literature on the subject of organization differentiates between many selection techniques. The basic methods like application form or curriculum vitae are rudimentary to employment interviews. This phase of recruitment process is called pre-screening candidates, which will help t o reduce the numbers of unsuitable candidates and to apply more detailed methods of assessment. After pre-screening is time for candidate assessment. An extensive range of assessment methods is currently available to the recruiter like : biodata, assessment centre, work sample, references are very useful and reliable. Nevertheless the use of interviews is still the most popular selection method in the world. Branine (2008) founds interviews to be the main part of the selection process and that there had been awareness of the danger of subjectivity in the conduct of interviews. To avoid such danger, Gabb (1997, p. 64) argued that companies often prefer an interview panel of two or sequential interviews with different people. A recent comparative study of six countries found that the interview was one of the most popular selection methods. Despite, interviews being reported very often to be subjective and unreliable. It seems that the face-to-face contact with the applicant and the po ssibility of assessing the candidates social and communication skills are the main advantages of the interview, and hence the main reason for using it. While the trio of application form, interview and references is still popular, there have been further developments in incorporating those with the use of assessment centers which has been reported to be in the increase (Branine, M., 2008). Assessment centers are described by Pilbeam Corbridge (2006, p. 157) as useful in penetrating behaviors relating to interpersonal relationships, leadership, influencing ability, sociability, competitiveness, self-motivation, tolerance, persuasiveness, and decisiveness. Assessment centers have become popular venues for the selection of candidates, the identification of their potentials and the assessment of their training and development needs. The number of multinational companies from the USA has increased, more and more large companies are using a variety of tests ranging from ability to aptitude, personality and intelligence, especially those companies who receive a large number of applications and those needing more skilled employees. But as Marchington Wilkinson (cited in Beardwell, I., Holden, L. Claydon, T., 2004) quote none of the techniques, irrespective of how well they are designed and administered, is capable of producing perfect selection decisions that predict with c ertainty who is or who is not bound to be a good performer in a particular role. Figure 1.3 shows the accuracy of selection methods. According to Beardwell et al. (2004) the enlargement in using assessment centers and selection testing like a more accurate methods, can help to improve the effectiveness of the selection process. Though, assessment centers are believed to be the most influential selection method in organizations, but still the higher percentage of the firms considering interviews to be the most important selection method. However, doubts about accuracy push employers to approve the interview formats or supplement the interview with the other selection methods such as tests or work simulation (Beardwell et al., 2004). Data about accuracy of various types of selection techniques covers large differences within each technique. It needs to be considered in that point reliability and validity, but the detailed aspects of these two key criteria, which are already mentioned, are going to be explained in the following part of this dissertation. Table1.3 The predictive accuracy of selection methods Source: Anderson and Shackleton cited in Beardwell et al. (2004, p. 216)) Selection methods concept of validity reliability Reliability and validity, as statistical concepts, are very important for selection methods. Reliability is a link to the extent to which a selection technique achieves consistency in measuring. The statistical analysis normally provides a coefficient reliability. In summary of results, the higher will be coefficient (that is, the closer it is to 1.0) the more dependable the technique (Bratton J., 2003, p.235). Figure 3 shows the validity, estimated by meta analyses, of many selection methods. Good selection methods must meet four basic requirements: practicality, sensitivity, reliability and validity (Price, A., 2000, pp. 148-149). Practicality of the selection method means that it should meet the constraints of cost and time, whereas sensitivity focuses on distinguishing one candidate from another. Reliability of the method can be considered in three aspects: test-retest reliability the duration should not have an impact on the score when doing the same tests; inter-rater reliability the same scores should be given by different interviewers; internal consistency different questions measuring the same competence should give comparable results. Equally, validity has also three aspects: face validity tests are more acceptable when candidates find relevant questions; construct validity and predictive validity how well the suitability of candidates for the position is predicted (Price A., 2000, p. 149). It is possible to make a credible selection decision when the requir ed criteria are clearly marked out. If the criteria are not made clear it will be difficult to make an appropriate decision and will also be difficult to validate the selection process (Torrington, D., 2005, p.142). According to the study of Levy-Leboyer mentioned in the Cornelius book (1999, p. 39), the validity of many selection methods is debatable and that is why they should be used with care. As the high validity the following selection methods are thought: work sample, aptitude test, assessment centre and cognitive test. Medium validity has bio data, and the low validity: references, interviews, personality tests, whereas graphology and astrology do not have any validity (Cornelius N., 1999, pp. 39-40). Moreover validity studies carried out by Taylor (1998) and referred to by Armstrong (2006) found conventional interview methods to be questionable and suggested that alternative selection methods such as biographical data, assessment centres and work tests are more accurate methods of selection. While many studies in recent years have raised concern about selection and validity, the most widely used methods remain the classic trio application form, interview, and references (Taylor 2001). Early research showed that unstructured interview did not have high validity, so as to improve its validity interview should be more structured. It means that all applicants are asked the same questions and the same dimensions are used to assess applicants. Structured interviews should potentially increase the quality of decisions made (Newell, S., 2001, p. 33). However, according to Heffcutt Arthur (1994, pp. 184-190) improving the structure of interview does not increase validity. The question remains therefore, that if these methods are among the least valid, why are they still so popular? Armstrong (2006) suggests it is the comfort factor and that recognition needs to be given to the fact that both interviewers and interviewees like them and have grown to expect them. This is also known as mentioned before face validity. He also suggests that most interviewers / organisations may not be aware of what the research suggests. When compared with other selection methods, the classic trio is relatively low-cost and provides the opportunity to have a face to face meeting. In examining selection methods, Armstrong (2006) further suggests that too much innovation in selection methods may turn prospective candidates off. While some organisations may see this as a form of de-selection, the danger is that potentially high calibre and not just the less suitable candidates may be turned off by lengthier and more drawn out selection processes; even if they are more valid. However, Cornelius argues that using different methods of selection can increase the certainty of selecting the right applicant in a fair way (1999, p. 40) Figure 3 is based on Schmidt and Hunters (1998) review and shows the validity, estimated by meta analyses, of many selection methods. Source: Schmidt, F. L., Hunter, J. E. (1998). The validity and utility of selection methods in personnel psychology: practical and theoretical implications of 85 years of research .Findings. Psychological Bulletin, 124, 262-274.

Four Seasons Goes to Paris

Four Seasons Goes to Paris: 53 Properties, 24 Countries, 1 Philosophy Four Seasons is the world’s leading operator of luxury hotels and resorts. They are well known not only in the U. S. but they are a huge international hit. They have been successful over the last thirty years because of their strengths of diversity and originality. Four Seasons does not want to be a globalization of markets like McDonald’s, where everyone is the same. They are not a â€Å"cookie-cutter company. This is a great tactic to have because then you would not be such a high class hotel and resort. Also, when you go international you have to be in touch with all of the cultural changes which can make or break your business. They have done an exceptional job of adapting to the different cultures. When you walk into a four seasons hotel â€Å"it does not scream four seasons at you. † Another reason why they are so successful is because the top management have been around for over 25 year s. This means that they are extremely familiar with to the company and how everything works and they can easily train the new employees. Once trained then they become part of the family. â€Å"Both corporate and field managers often referred to the firm as a family, complete with rules, traditions, and tough love. † I believe this is a one of the main reasons why they are so successful. If your employees are happy to wake up and come to work in the morning knowing everyone is basically a family member makes them work a lot harder because you do not want to let down a family member. The workers made the guest feel so comfortable and at home that the guest wanted to buy the linens to remind them of the stay. The seven four seasons â€Å"service culture standards† rules make the guest always feel welcome in the hotel and make them always want to come back and tell people how well of a stay they had. The last and I think the most important reason why the four season have been successful for the past four years is because the emphasis on the golden rule. â€Å"one should treath others as one would wish to be treated. If you work in a people oriented business where you need to please your guests, this is the mindset you should be in for a successful business. â€Å"Despite the success of four seasons, approach and philosophy, management knew that entering France would be a challenge. † I feel that how they entered was perfect. They entered in a very powerful manner by deciding to manage the George V which is right in the middle of the French capital an d is the â€Å"highest possible quality asset in the best location. They basically came in and took over and told everyone how it is going to be run. They did respect a lot of the working hour rules, and the hours by a window rules and stuff like. I really liked the aspect that they kept the hotel running like it always has been even though in France they do things a lot differently with customer service. It was good that they hired depending on the attitude. â€Å"What we need is people who can adapt, either to guests from all over the world or to operating a variety of countries. I like this because it says that the workers need to adapt to the guests no matter where they are from because that is how the four seasons does it. If they would of came into this situation any different, I feel that they would have been pushed out and the hotel would of turned bad. They only bad thing I can come up with is that they did change a lot of the culture around because the French are differe nt on their customer service than Americans. They are polychromic people compared to how we operate as a monochromic people. If you are a firm entering a market you have to be very familiar with what the culture is your are dealing with. Some cultures are very religious and if you try to change their ways then it could be going against their religion. But in the lessons from this case I believe you can enter a market like they did but you have to be cautious of what you change because if it goes bad then your reputation could go under and then you are bankrupt in that market.

Essay on The Trials of Othello - 934 Words

The Trials of Othello nbsp; nbsp; In Shakespeares Othello there are three main trials that build the plot of the play. In each of these trials, Iago though not always the judge tries to be the puppet master. He does this by focusing on each characters fatal flaw. nbsp; nbsp;nbsp;nbsp; In the play the three main trails go as follows. First there is Othellos trial were he is being judged by the Duke and Brabantio regarding what happened with himself and Desdemona. The second and main trial is that of Othello judging Cassio, though it is not much of a trial per say because Othello is merely listening to what Iago has to say and does not even confront Cassio. The third and most dramatic trial is when at the†¦show more content†¦It is thing like this that throughout the play make Iago more and more believable to the characters around him. nbsp; nbsp;nbsp;nbsp; The next trial gets a little bit more complicated. It starts off with a long dialogue between Iago and Othello, which begins after they see Casio briskly leaving Desdemonas side as they enter into view.nbsp; At first Othello thinks nothing of this, but this is when Iagos master plan begins. First Iago realizes that Othello will always act on impulse with whatever information he has.nbsp; This is one reason why Iago stretches out his opinion of whats going on over an entire conversation. Had he just come out and say it Othello probably would not have believed him. Even if he did this would most likely end up in Othello rushing to confront either Desdemona or Casio thus killing Iagos opportunity to elaborate on the subject in a way that Othello would have to believe him. In this scene Iago repeats a lot of words that Othello says in regard to Casio that alone would be meaning less but he says them in a very suggestive tone implying that there was something m ore to everything he said about Casio. 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While he was on trial for murder Mustafa said â€Å"I am Othello† (Salih, 33)because he felt that they had some shared characteristic, for instance they were both Arabian African men who were living as outsiders in a white world, and like Othello Mustafa also killed his lover, Jean Morris. However the biggest commonality he shared with the character of Othello was that their insecurity of living in a white world led to tragedy. Later during the trial Mustafa changesRead MoreOthello : An Aristotelian Tragedy And Tragic Hero1604 Words   |  7 PagesOthello, an Aristotelian Tragedy and Tragic Hero When reading a story, specifically a tragedy, what stands out? Tragedy often enables its audience to reflect on personal values that might be in conflict with civil ideas, on the claims of minorities that it neglected or excluded from public life, on its on irrational prejudices toward the foreign of the unknown (Kennedy Gioia, 2103, p. 857). Readers feel sympathy for the characters, especially the tragic hero. Othello, the Moor of Venice isRead MoreThe Character Desdemona and the Role of Women Depicted in Shakespeares Othello822 Words   |  4 PagesThe society in which Othello takes place is a patriarchal one, where men had complete control over women. They were seen as possessions rather than being just as equally human and capable of duties performed by men. All women of the Elizabethan were to obey all men, fathers, brothers, husbands, etc. Which leads me to the most reliable and trustworthy character of Desdemona, whom goes through many trials just to satisfy her love. S hakespeare brings the thought of Desdemona into the play by BarbantioRead MoreAnalyzing Humanity in Othello: The Reason Why it is Still Worth Studying1675 Words   |  7 PagesHumanity in Othello: The Reason It is Still Worth Studying Dr. David Allen White of the US Naval Academy asserts that we are all Iago now (White 2000). The claim may seem outlandish at first. Modern man representative of Shakespeares greatest arch-villain? How could one even suggest such a thing? Whites argument is followed by a series of points, each of which is aimed to help his audience realize that the character they most readily identify with is not Othello (the tragic hero of the drama)

The Mistreatment Of Women In Slavery Before An Emancipation Proclamation - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 5 Words: 1604 Downloads: 10 Date added: 2019/08/16 Category History Essay Level High school Tags: Emancipation Proclamation Essay Slavery Essay Did you like this example? The treatment of women in the United States during slavery varied depending on time, and parts of the country. Slavery in the United States can be traced back to the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries when it was legal in the country and became common within much of the nation until it got abolished when the Emancipation Proclamation was introduced. It was awful for women like Harriet Jacobs who was a writer, abolitionist, speaker, and reformer. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "The Mistreatment Of Women In Slavery Before An Emancipation Proclamation" essay for you Create order She escaped to the north in 1842, where she was taken in by anti-slavery friends from the Philadelphia vigilante committee. They helped her get to New York in September in 1845, where she was able to help many freed slaves. In 1861, Jacobs autography Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl which reveals Jacobs hardship as a slave woman, how she overcame challenges and gained freedom for herself and for her children was published. The other article, Slavery at Sea: Terror, Sex, and Sickness in the Middle Passage, which was written by Mustakeem (2016) also reveals how slave women and men treated, got unexpectedly abducted from their villages, and forcefully travelled over the Atlantic ocean to be exchanged as commodities or sold during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. This book exposes how the unexpectedly abducted slaves voyages got treated and the disappointing experiences; in particular, women slaves had to face such as getting raped, being tied up together as animals and gett ing thrown off the boats to demolish their feelings and dehumanize them in order to avoid fighting back or escaping. These both books, explain in depth how the treatment of slave women in slavery looked like during the Antebellum History of the United States of America which is considered to be the period between the war of 1812 and civil war. The womens movement could be able to arouse sorrow for mistreated women among whites and obtain their help for their anti-slavery movement led by abolitionists and could initiate a government towards the introduction of the Emancipation Proclamation. In the 1800s, women were thought to be weak, unintelligent, and overall inferior to men in their communities; moreover, women born into slavery had a harsh and disappointing time. For instance, Harriet Jacobs, daughter of Delilah, the slave of Margaret Hornblow, and Daniel Jacobs, the slave of Andrew Knox, came to this world in Edenton, North Carolina, in the fall of 1813. Jacobs had no idea that she was the property of someone (a slave) until her mother died at her age of six. When Jacobs turned 12, her mistress who taught her how to read, write, and sew died since then she started facing obstacles that she was not expected. She had two children at her age of 20, but sexual exploitation drove her into hiding for 7-years until she was ab le to escape to New York in 1842. Finally, she could be able to reunite with her two children. They are so many similar recorded stories about the treatment of women in slavery before the Emancipation Proclamation. Most of women slaves were exposed to sexual exploitation, forced to split-up from their loved ones, and subjected to get more beatings by their owners if a slave tried to save or defend them from any types of abuses, like sexual, at their hands of their owners, usually by slave owners, white males. They were not even allowed to defend themselves against any mistreatments or abuses. Most of the people may not aware of how the process of bringing slaves into America from their native soil was harsh and brutal. They were kidnapped forcefully and sold to slave traders in exchange for money or commodities. According to John (2014) only luck few slaves, one captured slave in three slaves, could be survived in their long journey from Africa until they got to America, and they were used to hand to people who kept them busy and poor situations. In their resided country, USA, they could face challenges such as a physical abuse, long work day, malnutrition, and no medical attention after severe injuries. In 1825, Harriet and her brother, John S Jacobs (William) moved into the household of Dr. Flint. Shortly after Harriet and John situated her father died. This situation made her life worse, feeling alone and unhappy, and unbearable. In addition, it exposed and facilitated her to a sexual exploitation. Dr. Flint told her that he was going to build a small cottage house for her, in a secluded place, four miles away from town to make her his concubine. In the end, he came and told her the house was bu ilt, and he ordered her to go to it. At age of fifteen, feeling hopeless to escape Dr. Flint, Jacobs entered to a sexual relationship with a Mr. Sands whom she had already introduced and seemed to her a great thing to have and by degrees, a more tender feeling crept into her heart. The union of Mr. Sands, an unmarried white lawyer and future U.S. Congressman and Jacobs produced a son, Joseph, in 1829, and a daughter, Louisa Matilda, in 1833. The story of Jacobs life lists some of the hardships faced by women in slavery in ?the antebellum period and during the last decades before an emancipation proclamation could be in effect. Before the Emancipation Proclamation was legally introduced, in the 1800s and 1700s, attempting to escape was a difficult thing women had to face because most often they could have kids, and could be the only one who used to feed a whole family and could be the only source of a familys income. For instance, in the case of Nancy Gindrat; a slave woman, who was owned by James Epingger, could be able to escape on October 12, 1829, from her master. She was in finding for more than two years and her master promised to offer a price of $350, which was higher than any other slaves price, to who-ever could find her. Despite all the offerings that James made to get her back, she managed to be remained free. In another similar case, wishing that by seeming to hide Harriet Jacobs could induce Dr. Flint to sell her children to her father; Jacobs hid herself in a crawl space above storeroom in her grandmothers house in the summer of 1835. In that little dismal hole she remained for the next seven years, sewing, reading the Bible, keeping watch over her children as best she could, and writing occasional letters to Dr. Flint designed to confuse him as to her actual whereabouts. Jacobs explained the moment she was in hiding in her words as At times, I was stupefied and listless; at other times I became very impatient to know when these dark years would end, and I should again be allowed to feel the sunshine, and breathe the pure air. One can see by reading Jacobs and Nancy life stories that women were forced to split up or broken up with their loved ones, husband, and children because their families or women themselves could be sold whenever their masters (men who have people working for) or mistresses (masters wives) wanted to do it like one would sell his/her property, furniture or animal. Not all slaves that had a chance to escape had the same luck, only a very few numbers of slave women who escaped could stay free without getting found back and having difficulties. The slave owners did not care about in tearing families apart; all they used to think was about getting money and services. The era before the end of a civil war can be reminded in the history of the United States of America as the era slave women suffered many traumas. The narrative book penned by Harriet Anne Jacobs, Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl, and other stories that shared in this document have been providing and been inspiring the following generations with an understanding and revealing a look at often-undocumented histories of women in slavery. President Abraham Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation on January 1, 1863, as the nation approached its third year of the bloody civil war. The proclamation declared that all persons held as slaves within the rebellious states are, and henceforward shall be free. Henceforward, hopes started to come for many American women who had wanted freedom and suffered under slaves. This proclamation did not affect and apply to slaves already under the Southern army. Using freed black men and freed slaves, eventually, helped Lincoln to win the civil wa r. Bibliography Dudley Taylor Cornish, The Sable Arm: Negro Troops in the Union Army, 1861â€Å"1865 (New York: Longmans, Green, and Co., 1956), pp. 1â€Å"12 Jean Fagon Yellin, ed. September 1810November 1843: Slavery and Resistance, Harriet Jacobs Family Papers, Chapel Hill: UNC Press, 2008. PP. 1-51. Ljungquist, Kent P. 2013. James L. Machor, Reading Fiction in Antebellum America: Informed Response and Reception Histories. Nineteenth-Century Prose no. 1: 246. Literature Resource Center, EBSCOhost (accessed February 27, 2018). Mustakeem, Sowande M. 2016. Slavery at Sea: Terror, Sex, and Sickness in the Middle Passage. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2016. eBook Collection (EBSCOhost), EBSCOhost (accessed February 20, 2018). Schwartz, Barry. 2015. The Emancipation Proclamation: Lincolns Many Second Thoughts. Society 52, no. 6: 590. MasterFILE Premier, EBSCOhost. Sekora, John. 2014. Harriet Jacobs. Salem Press Biographical Encyclopedia Research Starters, EBSCOhost (accessed February 21, 2018). Susan Hardy Aiken An Incident in the Life of a Slaveholder: The Search for Nancy Gindrat.. The New England Quarterly, vol. 78, no. 1, 2005, pp. 77â€Å"100. JSTOR, JSTOR. Tolley, R. Women in American history: a social, political, and cultural encyclopedia and document collection: v.1: Precolonial North America to the early Republic; v.2: Antebellum America through the Gilded Age; v.3: Progressive Era through World War II; v.4: Cold War America to today. CHOICE: Current Reviews for Academic Libraries, 2017., 1798, Literature Resource Center, EBSCOhost (accessed February 21, 2018).

Betrayal and Deception in The Great Gatsby by F. Scott...

Betrayal, a deception of a presumption which then produces conflict between a relationship. Friends and family members have the power to betray us any second. We view them as an extension of ourselves; someone we can confide in. Your notion about them could be completely false for the betrayal they are capable of. Betrayal could be hidden in the shadows of a relationship between you and a friend, a special bond, or even a family member. Betrayal could be found within a nonfictional or fictional novel, play, poem, movie and even picture. The Great Gatsby is a novel written by F. Scott Fitzgerald in 1925. In his novel, he displays a lot of symbols, and themes including wealth, greed, and of course, betrayal. Betrayal can upset many people and ruin many people. Betrayal was demonstrated throughout the entire novel with a lot of connections. Three situations I had talked about were Gatsby betrayed by Daisy, Tom cheating on Daisy with Myrtle and when no one attends Gatsby’s funeral. The first relationship explained is Tom and Daisy Buchanan. Tom is a very powerful domineering man, very self-centered and self-absorbed, while Daisy is a beautiful lady, with a rousing voice, but also very self-centered as well. Tom and Daisy’s relationship had undergoing stress. Daisy knows how to push all of Tom’s buttons and how hard to push them. Daisy tells Nick how cynical she is about everything, she shows her views in the quote â€Å"She told me it was a girl and I turned my head away andShow MoreRelatedChoosing Security Over Love: The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald1122 Words   |  5 PagesChoosing Security Over Love Women, stereotypically viewed as the hard working house wife in the family, take on a role that is completely asymmetrical and discriminated in F. Scott Fitzgerald’s The Great Gatsby. Women in this novel are portrayed as insecure, only wanting the need for awareness, not for the lifetime companion that the stereotypical woman want to pursue. According to the quote from Sylvia Plath exclaiming, â€Å"What a man wants is a mate and what a woman wants is infinite security†,Read MoreHope and the American Dream Portrayed in Fitzgeralds The Great Gatsby1702 Words   |  7 Pagesâ€Å"The Great Gatsby†, written by F. Scott Fitzgerald, portrays a world filled with rich societal happenings, love affairs, and corruption. Nick Carraway is the engaged narrator of the book, a curious choice considering that he is in a different class and almost in a different world than Gatsby and the other characters. Nick relates the plot of the story to the reader as a member of Gatsbyâ €™s circle. He has ambivalent feelings towards Gatsby, despising his personality and corrupted dream but feelingRead MoreThe Great Gatsby And The Handmaid s Tale : Crushing Dreams2951 Words   |  12 PagesMrs. Tucker English 12 hour 3 13 March 2015 The Great Gatsby and The Handmaid’s Tale: Crushing Dreams The Great Gatsby is regarded as a classic novel for its sad and hopeful story of Jay Gatsby and his quest to obtain Daisy Buchanan, his first love. Margaret Atwood’s The Handmaid s Tale is regarded as a more modern day classic, taking place in a dystopian society where women are regarded as sex slaves and the Bible is law. Both F. Scott Fitzgerald and Margaret Atwood, despite having different writing

Obstetric Brachial Plexus Palsy Health And Social Care Essay Free Essays

The estimated incidence of OBPP in the UK and the Republic of Ireland is 0.42 [ 1 ] , in the US 1.5 [ 23 ] and in other western states 1-3 per 1000 unrecorded births [ 3,5,9,22,24-30 ] . We will write a custom essay sample on Obstetric Brachial Plexus Palsy Health And Social Care Essay or any similar topic only for you Order Now Variations in the estimated incidence may be explained by differences in populations and in the antenatal and intrapartum direction [ 31,32 ] . A population-based survey from western Sweden estimated that between 1999-2001 the incidence of OBPP was 2.9 per 1000 unrecorded births, and of prevailing OBPP was 0.46 per 1000 births ( REF Lagerkvist ) . . In another survey from Sweden Bager [ 13 ] had antecedently found an addition in the incidence of brachial rete paralysis ( BPP ) from 1.3 per 1000 vaginal bringings in 1980 to 2.2 per 1000 vaginal bringings in 1994. Chauhan et Al. [ 3 ] compared two clip periods ( 1980-1991 1991-2002 ) and found that the incidence of OBPP has non changed significantly ( 0.9 per 1000 and 1.0 per 1000 severally ) . Gurewitsch et Al. [ 10 ] estimated an incidence of 5.8 per 1000 between the old ages 1993 and 2004 and noted that this remained changeless during the period of their survey. Many writers have admitted that an addition in the cesarean subdivision rates over the past few decennaries may hold been counteracted by an increased birthweight. Furthermore, despite the debut of systematic preparation in the direction of shoulder dystocia with usage of standard manoeuvres, manikins and simulators no important decrease of the incidence of OBPP has been noted. Hazard Factors The hazard factors for OBPP are foetal, maternal, and obstetric, [ 37 ] the most important being foetal macrosomia [ 3,18,20,22,26-28 ] which is a hazard factor for shoulder dystocia [ 27,38-42 ] . Nesbitt et al conducted a big population based survey and reported the undermentioned rates of shoulder dystocia for single-handed births of nondiabetic female parents: 5.2 % for birthweight 4000-4250g, 9.1 % for 4250-4500g, 14.3 % for 4500-4750g, and 21.1 % for 4750-5000g ( Nesbitt et al. 1998 ) . OBPP after rear of barrel bringings can besides happen, normally in low birthweight foetuss [ 43,44 ] . The upper roots are often affected in these instances and the hurts tend to be more terrible [ 45 ] . Diabetess mellitus [ 22 ] , fleshiness [ 46,47 ] or inordinate weight addition [ 47 ] , maternal age ( gt ; 35years ) [ 48 ] , maternal pelvic anatomy ( platypelloid, level pelvic girdle ) [ 3,22,27,39,40,49 ] and primiparity [ 50 ] are common maternal hazard factors. Diabetess mellitus is a important hazard factor for OBPP, as it frequently causes foetal macrosomia [ 51 ] . Nesbitt et Al found that the hazard of shoulder dystocia for single-handed births to diabetic adult females was 8.4 % , 12.3 % , 19.9 % , and 23.5 % when the birth weight was 4000-4250g, 4250-4500g, 4500-4750g, or gt ; 4750g, severally. ( Nesbitt et al. 1998 ) . Mild glucose intolerance in adult females without diabetes is besides associated with hazards of OBPP, proposing that there is a continuum of glucose-insulin impact on foetal growing that is correlated to the hazard of OBPP [ 52 ] . Shoulder dystocia is a major hazard factor for OBPP [ 9,22,24,40,54-57 ] . The reported incidence of OBPP in bringings complicated by shoulder dystocia varies widely from 4 % to 40 % [ 14,57,58 ] and the incidence of lasting brachial rete hurt after shoulder dystocia is 1.6 % [ 59 ] . Although foetal macrosomia is the most important hazard factor for shoulder dystocia and is associated with most of the other hazard factors ( maternal diabetes, multiparity, old macrosomic baby, drawn-out gestation, maternal fleshiness or inordinate weight addition ) , about half of the instances of shoulder dystocia occur in babies lt ; 4000g ( Acker et al. 1985 ) . The hazard of OBPP is increased by labour abnormalcies. OBPP occurs more often in induced labours [ 52 ] . Cephalopelvic or fetopelvic disproportion ( the size or place of the foetal caput or the foetus precludes transition into the maternal pelvic recess ) is a hazard factor for shoulder dystocia and OBPP. A relentless occipito- posterior place [ 65 ] has been associated with an increased incidence of OBPP. Lurie et al [ 60 ] found no difference in rates of distension or continuance of the 2nd phase in instances with shoulder dystocia and concluded that protracted labour was non a hazard factor for it. Gross et al [ 66 ] showed that a drawn-out 2nd phase increased the hazard of OBPP, but concluded that shoulder dystocia can non be predicted from labour abnormalcies. Weizsaecker et al support the association of drawn-out 2nd phase in labour with OBPP independent of macrosomia, diabetes, and other factors [ 52 ] . Several other surveies considered a drawn-out 2nd phase as a hazard fac tor for shoulder dystocia [ 46,62,67-69 ] and for OBPP [ 27,66 ] . In contrast, a high incidence of hasty 2nd phase of labour among babies with OBPP has besides been demonstrated [ 70 ] . However, Poggi et al suggest that although hasty 2nd phase is the most prevailing labour abnormalcy associated with shoulder dystocia, no feature of second-stage of labour predicts lasting brachial rete hurt [ 37 ] . Operative vaginal bringing is another hazard factor for shoulder dystocia and OBPP [ 3,21,22,26,27,68,71,72 ] . In Nesbitt ‘s survey the hazard of shoulder dystocia for operative vaginal bringings to diabetic female parents was 12.2 % for babies 4000-4250g, 16.7 % for those 4250-4500g, 27.3 % for those 4500-4750g, and 34.8 % for those 4750-5000g ( Nesbitt et al. 1998 ) . Cesarean subdivision decreases the hazard, but OBPP may still happen accounting for merely 1-4 % of all instances [ 22 ] [ 73 ] . When looking at combinations of hazard factors including manner of bringing, maternal diabetes and foetal macrosomia [ 22 ] , the incidence of OBPP appears similar in aided vaginal bringings of nondiabetic adult females and self-generated vaginal bringings in diabetic adult females. The combination of maternal diabetes, foetal macrosomia ( gt ; 4500g ) and assisted vaginal bringing has the highest OBPP rate ( 7.8 % ) . Gilbert et Als have besides shown stronger associations between shoulder dystocia and brachial rete hurt with increasing birth weights. Twenty two per cent of neonates weighing 2.5-3.5kg with OBPP besides had shoulder dystocia, which increases to 74 % in newborns weighing more than 4.5kg. Overall, 53 % of brachial plexus hurt instances were associated with shoulder dystocia. The frequence of diagnosing of other malpresentation was increased ( OR 73.6, 95 % CI 66, 83 ) in this survey. This determination, harmonizing to the writers, suggests that â€Å" brachial rete h urt has other causes in add-on to shoulder dystocia and might ensue from an abnormalcy during the antepartum or intrapartum period † [ 22 ] . A old gestation complicated with OBPP is another hazard factor [ 74 ] . Al-Qattan and al-Kharfy [ 74 ] reported a high return rate in adult females with history of old childbearing with lasting OBPP and advocated elected cesarean bringing in these instances particularly if there is besides foetal macrosomia. However it is non known whether these consequences would use to instances of old impermanent OBPP. Gordon et al [ 6 ] besides found that 14 % of their 59 topics with OBPP were born to female parents who had given birth to babes with OBPP in old gestations. Pathogenesis OBPP has been considered as a effect of inordinate grip and sidelong extension exerted on the foetal cervix during bringing, which consequences in stretching, rupturing or avulsing the cervical nervus roots from the spinal cord [ 75 ] . However, OBPP may happen in the absence of any grip or any identifiable hazard factors. During labour, the brachial rete is exposed to two potentially harmful forces: the endogenous ( intrauterine ) forces and exogenic ( grip ) forces applied by the clinician. Mathematical theoretical accounts, manikins and computing machine simulations have been used to quantify the forces applied on the brachial rete and the threshold for doing hurt. Although these surveies attempted to objectively quantify the grade of both endogenous and exogenic forces, their consequences should be interpreted with cautiousness due to their experimental nature. Exogenous ( grip ) forces If the foetal shoulders remain in a relentless anteroposterior place at the pelvic recess, as observed in instances of foetal macrosomia with an increased bisacromial diameter ( e.g. , with maternal diabetes mellitus ) [ 76,77 ] or precipitate 2nd phase of labour [ 54,70 ] the anterior shoulder may go wedged behind the symphysis pubic bone and farther descent of the foetal caput consequences in stretching of the anterior brachial rete. In shoulder dystocia the applied force and the clip to present the foetal shoulders is frequently significantly increased. Forceful downward grip of the caput when the shoulder is impacted under the symphysis pubic bone can potentially ensue in farther impaction and cause overstretching and hurt of the brachial rete. Downward grip of the foetal caput appears strongly associated with OBPP ( OR: 15.2, 95 % C.I. : 8.4-27.7 ) and the hazard is significantly increased with the grip force applied. Rotation of the shoulders into oblique pelvic diameter is bes ides associated with hazard of OBPP ( OR: 5.5, C.I. :1.6-18.9 ) [ 30 ] . Gonik et al [ 88 ] , showed that downward sidelong flexure of the foetal caput was associated with a 30 % addition in brachial rete stretch ( 18.2 % ) compared with axial placement of the caput ( 14 % ) . Furthermore, the foetal caput is in an unnaturally distorted place in relation to the shoulders, as the shoulders remain in the AP diameter at the recess while the caput has rotated in the AP diameter at the mercantile establishment { Sandmire, 2009 # 6162 } . The badness of the hurt may depend on the grade of grip, writhing and extension of the foetal caput { Sandmire, 2008 # 6057 } . The usage of force feeling devices has shown that the applied extremum grip forces are about 47 N for everyday bringings, 69 N for hard bringings, and 100 N for bringings complicated by shoulder dystocia, proposing that, as the badness of dystocia additions, stronger grip is normally observed [ 86 ] . Even in bringings non complicated by shoulder dystocia the forces applied during downward grip can be frequently underestimated as significant forces were found to hold been used in many OBPP instances [ 30 ] . Direct compaction of the symphysis pubic bone against the brachial rete may besides be a conducive factor to injury [ 13 ] . OBPP may happen regardless of the figure and type of manoeuvres used in instances of shoulder dystocia [ 12,14,69 ] , but the trouble to accomplish bringing of the shoulders and the demand for extra manoeuvres is correlated to the hazard of OBPP. Experimental surveies utilizing pelvic and foetal theoretical accounts, tactile feeling baseball mitts and computerised informations acquisition systems have besides shown that as the trouble of the bringing increases with increasing grip forces, there is a concentration of force on the brachial rete from exogenously applied sidelong flexure [ 87 ] . In these experiments it was demonstrated that the wider the foetal shoulder girth, the greater the force demands and the higher the incidence of hurt. In contrast, the McRoberts manoeuvre appeared to cut down the grade of brachial rete stretching. Slightly more than 10 % of the shoulder dystocia instances that resolve with the McRoberts ‘ manoeuvre entirely have brachial plexus hurt [ 78 ] . After an unsuccessful McRoberts ‘ manoeuvre, brachial plexus hurt rates range from 15.7 % if bringing is achieved by the Woods ‘ manoeuvre to 31.8 % if bringing of the posterior arm is undertaken [ 14 ] . Intrauterine causes As several instances of OBPP occur in the absence of grip or any known hazard factors, hurts to the brachial rete may be caused by the normal forces of labour and bringing. In one of the first surveies proposing that OBPPs are non needfully caused by clinician-applied grip, it was estimated that 26 out of the 51 OBPP instances were non associated with a bringing complicated by shoulder dystocia. { Gordon, 1973 # 615 } . Since so, several other surveies have shown that about half of all OBPPs are non associated with shoulder dystocia [ 5,12,13,18,19 ] and many instances have non been preceded by a hard bringing or grip on the anterior shoulder [ 20,79,80 ] . Harmonizing to different series, up to 20 % of lasting OBPPs are non associated with shoulder dystocia { Chauhan, 2005 # 48 } { Sandmire, 2009 # 6162 } . Jennett et al [ 18 ] concluded that brachial plexus hurt might be the consequence of intrauterine maladaptation and should non be needfully considered as leading facie grounds of birth procedure hurt. In the absence of shoulder dystocia, OBPP occurs by a different mechanism [ 81 ] . The bulk of OBPPs in the absence of shoulder dystocia ( 67.7 % ) appear to impact the posterior arm [ 59,84 ] . OBPPs of the posterior arm ( 39 % of all OBPPs { Gherman, 1998 # 114 } ) or after cesarean bringing suggest an intrauterine cause [ 3,4,18,19,27,38,82,83 ] . Brachial plexus stretching may be caused by an wedged posterior shoulder on the sacral headland while the propulsive forces of labour cause farther descent of the foetus { Sandmire, 2002 # 79 } . OBPPs may besides be secondary to compaction of the brachial rete on the sacral headland. Sandmire and DeMott { Sandmire, 2009 # 6162 } back up the impression that after the caput is delivered, the posterior shoulder can non be obstructed as the distance from the headland to the vaginal mercantile establishment ( 12-13 centimeter ) is excessively long to allow obstructor of the posterior shoulder and the foetal cervix can non be stretched that f ar { Sandmire, 2002 # 79 } , It is hence of paramount importance to document the place of the caput and shoulders in a instance of shoulder dystocia, as this type of hurt caused by impaction of the posterior shoulder on the sacral headland is unrelated to any action of the clinician and should non be considered negligent. Mathematical theoretical accounts have been used to gauge the exogenic and endogenous forces on the brachial rete during shoulder dystocia [ 89 ] . The endogenous forces were estimated to be 4 to 9 times higher than the clinician-applied forces ( 91.1 to 202.5 kPa vs 22.9 kPa ) proposing that self-generated endogenous forces may lend well to OBPP. However the writers of this survey acknowledged that their theoretical account did non account for a figure of confusing factors including soft tissue opposition, the dissipation of force throughout the womb or the compound consequence of grip and compaction forces. Further unfavorable judgment on this theoretical account focused on the gross premises made for the impaction site, the parametric quantities specifying the endogenous force distribution and the broad scope of contact force per unit areas between the foetal cervix and the symphysis pubic bone, which includes values that in existent life would transcend the fatal bounds [ 90 ] . Harmonizing to a little series, all of the 6 OBPPs following atraumatic cesarean subdivision had relentless hurt after a twelvemonth [ 85 ] . Brachial rete hurts have occured even when cesarean bringing was performed in early labour [ 82,85 ] . Uterine anomalousnesss, such as a lower uterine section fibroid or an intrauterine septum, may ensue in unnatural intrauterine force per unit areas and hurt to the brachial rete [ 85 ] . OBPP and phrenic nervus paralysis associated with a bicornuate womb have besides been reported [ 80 ] . Allen et Al, utilizing delivering simulators found that greatest stretch occurred in the posterior brachial rete during descent in non-shoulder dystocia bringings, whereas anterior brachial rete stretch, rotary motion, and extension were similar among non-shoulder dystocia, one-sided and bilateral shoulder dystocia bringings. The writers concluded that shoulder dystocia per Se does non present extra hazard of brachial rete stretch over everyday bringings [ 91 ] . However, they admitted that they did non command for loss of musculus tone secondary to hypoxia, the simulations were undertaken merely in occiput anterior place and the continuance of the 2nd phase in their experiment was less than 2 proceedingss. Although these experiments have improved our cognition on the mechanisms of hurt, clinical verification of their consequences is virtually impossible due to the emergent nature of shoulder dystocia and methodological and ethical issues around clinical research on the foetus during labour. Prediction and Prevention Our ability to foretell OBPP is rather limited as the bulk of the affected babies have no identifiable hazard factors [ 67 ] . In a series of 63 OBPPS most of the patients were nondiabetic ( 89 % ) , nonobese ( 76 % ) , had normal labour ( 91 % ) , and did non hold an assisted bringing ( 79 % ) . No hazard factors were identified in about 30 % of OBPP instances in another survey by Peleg et al [ 27 ] . Multiple logistic arrested development analysis utilizing prenatal, intrapartum, and neonatal factors predicted merely 19 % of the brachial rete hurts in the series of Perlow et Al [ 54 ] . Donnelly et Als have besides concluded that OBPP is non predictable by hazard factor hiting or analysis of the partogram [ 63 ] . Shoulder dystocia, a major hazard factor for OBPP is mostly unpredictable. Statistical theoretical accounts have been developed to gauge this hazard utilizing combinations of birth weight, maternal tallness and weight, gestational age and para [ 92,93 ] . The presence of multiple hazard factors appears to be a forecaster for shoulder dystocia [ 94 ] . Designation of hazard factors and an prenatal direction with tight control of glucose degrees in pregnant adult females with diabetes may cut down the incidence of foetal macrosomia and shoulder dystocia. A program for bringing in high hazard instances should include a multidisciplinary squad attack with a senior accoucheuse or an experient obstetrician available at the 2nd phase. Initiation of labour Initiation of labour has been antecedently recommended in instances of suspected macrosomia, in order to cut down the hazard of shoulder dystocia and birth hurt, nevertheless, a Cochrane reappraisal showed that initiation of labour for nondiabetic adult females with suspected foetal macrosomia does non look to cut down the hazards of maternal or neonatal morbidity [ 95 ] . Cesarean Section The hazard of brachial plexus hurt is lower in cesarean bringings [ 3,96 ] . If identifiable hazard factors are present, an elected cesarean delivery bringing might forestall OBPP. Yeo et al suggested that bringings by elected cesarean subdivision for birthweights in surplus of 4kg would forestall 44 % of shoulder dystocias and halve the perinatal mortality among births with shoulder dystocia with a 2 % subsequent addition of the cesarean subdivision rate [ 97 ] . On the other manus, Gilbert et Al found that 92 % of the high hazard patients ( diabetic adult females delivered by operative vaginal bringing with babies of gt ; 4.5kg birthweight ) did non hold OBPP and cesarean bringing would hold been unneeded [ 22 ] . Although macrosomia is normally associated with OBPP, Rouse et Al [ 32 ] found no benefit to elected cesarean bringing in adult females with estimated foetal weights of gt ; 4.5 kilogram, unless they were besides diabetic. These writers estimated that when elected cesar ean bringing was performed for estimated foetal weights of a†°?4.5kg, 3695 cesarean delivery bringings would be required for the bar of one permanent OBPP, whereas a policy of elected cesarean delivery bringings for birthweights of a†°?4kg was associated with 2345 several cesarean bringings. For diabetic adult females, more favorable ratios for cesarian bringings were estimated: 443 bringings with the 4.5kg policy, and 489 bringings with the 4kg policy. Ecker et al [ 38 ] besides suggested that at most birth weights, the figure of cesarean bringings necessary to forestall a individual hurt is high. In this survey, it was estimated that in nondiabetic adult females, between 19 and 162 cesarean subdivisions would hold been necessary to forestall a individual brachial rete hurt and among diabetic adult females between 5 and 48 extra cesarean delivery subdivisions would hold been required. The writers could hence non recommend the everyday usage of cesarean bringing in instanc es of macrosomia. The Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists recommends that elected cesarean subdivision can be considered in diabetic adult females when the estimated foetal weight is gt ; 4.5kg and in nondiabetic adult females when the estimated foetal weight is gt ; 5kg [ 98 ] . Nonetheless, some writers advocate a policy of offering elected cesarean bringing to adult females with kids with lasting OBPP [ 22 ] . Maneuvers at bringing For the bar of shoulder dystocia, contraceptive manoeuvres at bringing ( McRobert ‘s manoeuvre and suprapubic force per unit area ) have been evaluated, but there is deficiency of clear grounds to back up their modus operandi usage [ 99 ] . Management of shoulder dystocia The purpose of direction should be bar of foetal asphyxia, while avoiding foetal and maternal hurt. The go toing accoucheuse or obstetrician should be able to acknowledge a shoulder dystocia instantly and continue through a bit-by-bit sequence of manoeuvres to hasten bringing. Knowledge of the constructs that underlie manoeuvres and the practical inside informations of their executing appears much more effectual than cognition of the precise definitions or eponyms of each manoeuvre ( Crofts et al. 2008 ) . First line manoeuvres Mc Roberts manoeuvre involves acute flexure of the hips while the adult female is on supine place. This place straightens the lumbosacral angle, leting descent of the posterior shoulder. The maternal pelvic girdle is perpendicular to the way of the maternal expulsive forces. Gonik et al [ 88 ] , utilizing computing machine silent person theoretical accounts showed that with lithotomy placement, both endogenous and exogenic bringing forces were associated with brachial rete stretching during shoulder dystocia ( the per centum of brachial rete nervus stretch was 15.7 % vs 14.0 % , severally ) . McRoberts positioning resulted in 53 % less brachial rete stretch ( 6.6 % ) . Directed suprapubic force per unit area can be uninterrupted or ‘rocking ‘ force per unit area on the posterior facet of the anterior shoulder which may ease adduction of the shoulders, a decrease of the bisacromial diameter and rotary motion to an oblique place. Second line manoeuvres Delivery of the posterior arm is undertaken by infixing the manus in the vagina posteriorly and using soft force per unit area at the antecubital pit to flex the foetal forearm, which is so grasped and swept across the foetal thorax. If bringing of the posterior arm is achieved, the anterior arm rotates posteriorly or descends behind the symphysis pubic bone as Kung et Al showed that the shoulder dimensions are reduced by 2.5cms with this manoeuvre particularly in larger foetuss ( Kung et al. 2006 ) . Rubin ‘s manoeuvre: rotary motion of the shoulders is attempted by insertiong two fingers in the vagina behind the anterior shoulder. The shoulder is pushed frontward and the bisacromial diameter rotates into an oblique place. If unsuccessful, this can so be combined with the Woods ‘ prison guard manoeuvre. Forests ‘ prison guard: force per unit area is applied with two fingers on the anterior facet of the posterior shoulder and use force per unit area taking to revolve the foetus towards the same way as the Rubin manoeuvre. Reverse Woods ‘ prison guard: with two fingers behind the posterior shoulder rotary motion is attempted in the opposite way to the original Woods ‘ prison guard. All these manoeuvres aim to revolve the shoulders and enable bringing by conveying the anterior shoulder posteriorly. Interpolation of the whole manus in the vagina may enable better push on the shoulder and facilitate rotary motion ( Crofts et al. 2008 ) . All-fours: the adult female is on her custodies and articulatio genuss and soft grip is applied taking to present the buttocks shoulder which may fall due to gravitation and to a possible addition of the anteroposterior diameter of the maternal pelvic girdle. Clavicular break: although the bisacromial diameter is reduced with this manoeuvre, there is an increased hazard of iatrogenic brachial rete hurt, vascular and soft tissue foetal injury. Third line manoeuvres Zavanelli manoeuvre involves flexure of the foetal caput, reversal of damages, rotary motion of the caput back to the occipito-anterior place, and replacing into the womb. Tocolytics and general anesthetic agents are used for uterine relaxation. The foetus is so delivered by cesarean subdivision. Although this manoeuvre has success rates of up to 92 % , it is associated with terrible fetal and maternal morbidity including foetal hurts and deceases, uterine and vaginal rupture. Symphysiotomy requires surgical expertness and is associated with important hazards of lower urinary tract hurt. The patient is on a supine place and the thighs are abducted no more than 45IS from the midplane. A urethral catheter is inserted and the urethra is displaced laterally. Following local infiltration with lignocaine, a perpendicular pang scratch is made on the symphysis with a scalpel. The symphysis is normally partly separated by cutting through the fibers by rotational motion of the blade. This allows the anterior foetal shoulder to be disimpacted. In instances of shoulder dystocia, the hazards of OBPP may be reduced if manoeuvres are conducted suitably and forceful downward grip of the caput is avoided ( figure 1 ) . Gonik et al [ 88 ] , showed that downward sidelong flexure of the foetal caput was associated with a 30 % addition in brachial rete stretch ( 18.2 % ) compared with axial placement of the caput ( 14 % ) . Fundal force per unit area should be avoided as it can decline shoulder dystocia and grip combined with fundal force per unit area can be associated with neurological complications [ 57 ] . Consequences may be better and hazards of OBPP lower if there is no terror, force per unit area on the fundus, sidelong grip or pivoting of the caput at the cervix and when tortuosity or rotational motion of the caput to revolve the shoulders is avoided { Doumouchtsis, 2009 # 6174 } . Decision OBPP is a potentially annihilating complication of childbearing. Shoulder dystocia is merely one of a battalion of hazard factors for OBPP, most of which may be hard to foretell. Future research should be directed in prospective rating of the mechanisms of hurt, in order to enable accoucheurs, accoucheuses and other wellness attention professionals identify modifiable hazard factors, develop preventative schemes and better perinatal results. How to cite Obstetric Brachial Plexus Palsy Health And Social Care Essay, Essay examples

Genetics Embryonic Stem Cells

Question: Discuss the options that are available to produce genome modifications in the?mouse using mouse embryonic stem (ES) cells (20 marks). Describe in detail a non-ES?cell method you could use to conduct a forward genetic screen in the mouse. Use diagrams to illustrate your answer. Answer: Embryonic stem cells (ESCs) are recognized as pluripotent stem cells that are derived from the inner cell mass of blastocyst in the mammalian system and have the property to differentiate into any type of cells along with additional feature of propagation and plasticity. These cells are capable of exhibiting long term proliferative potential, maintain high telomerase activity and possess a normal karyotype. Pertaining to their plasticity and potential for unlimited capacity for self renewal, ESCs are widely used in regenerative medicine and replacement of damaged tissue following injury or disease. In mouse related or murine ESCs , these characteristic features of the ESCs are utilized as well to achieve the necessary outcomes associated to genomic modifications in mouse. The genetic modifications in the context of genetic engineering generally comprise of three broad categories encompassing somatic, germline and cloning. The genome modifications generally result due to error in the DNA damage repair pathway that account for non-homologous end joining (NHEJ) and eventuallt cause double strand break (DSB) of the DNA that in turn might alter the cellular pathway to a large extent. Mouse ESCs make use of the high fidelity homologous recombinational repair (HRR) strategy to repair the DSB. Mammalian gene manipulation has been conducted by virtue of gene targeting using the murine ESCs in an effort to correct the mutant hypoxanthine-guanine phosphoribosyl transferase (HPRT) gene via homologous recombination (Doetschman et al. 1986). The regulation of genetic expression achieved without altering the DNA sequence is normally executed via epigenetic plasticity. Empirical research suggest that mouse ESCs express high levels of Ten-Eleven translocation (TET1) protein that mediate the induction of 5 hydroxymethyl cytosine (5hmC) upon gene regulatory elements. Further analysis showed that co-localization of 5 hmC with Polycomb repressive complex 2 (PRC 2) is very much spec ific to mouse ESCs and PRC2 dependent engagement of Tet1 offer epigenetic plasticity (Neri et al. 2013). Mouse ESCs have been demonstrated to induce pluripotent stem cells through introduction of various transcription factors as well as upregulation of certain genes. Essentially the experiment conducted by Takahashi and Yamanaka 2006, showed the potential of four factors namely Oct3/4, Sox2, c-Myc, Klf4 under adequate ES cell culture conditions induced the generation of pluripotency in somatic cells. Hence, these marker genes were identified to be crucial in genetic modifications of such cells though incorporation of certain defined factors. Expression of several other genes including Nanog, Stat3 and -catenin were found to be specific in case of the mouse ESCs as well. Further studies prove that CRISPR/Cas-9 mediated genome engineering simultaneously target five genes such as Tet 1,2, 3, Sry, Uty-8 alleles in murine ESCs via high fidelity gene editing procedures. The one step gener ation of animals carrying mutations in multiple genes by means of operating CRISPR/Cas system within the mouse ESCs are therefore found to be beneficial in studying the epistatic interactions in conjunction with in vivo analysis of the functionally redundant genes (Wang et al. 2013). Thus through the adoption of the mouse ESCs into clinical research experiments it is now possible to carry out genetic modifications ranging from subtle mutations such as point mutation, insertion or micro deletion along with chromosomal rearrangements like duplication, translocation and macro deletion through proper gene targeting methods. Fig: Genetic modifications using mouse embryonic stem cells (ESCs) (Source: www.physiolgenomics.physiology.org. (2016) Retrieved on 9 December 2016 from https://physiolgenomics.physiology.org/content/34/3/225) In the recent times, the concept of forward genetics has been rendered as a coveted topic in terms of evaluating the genetic basis responsible for expressing a specific type of phenotype in an organism. Primarily naturally occurring mutations or induction of mutation by virtue of radiation, chemicals or using transposable elements may be conducted by means of harboring this technique where the function of a gene and its phenotypic character through analysis of the altered DNA sequences may be studied. In the context of the mouse, forward genetics has been applied to expose the yet unknown genes and also in order to detect the behavioral mutant of the circadian rhythm. The advent of the high density genetic maps together with the onset of the physical mapping resources, positional cloning associated with any mutation in the mouse is a practically possible and feasible (Takahashi, Pinto and Vitaterna 1994). Relevant researches have shown the efficacy of the CRISPR-Cas 9 system as a pre cise gene targeting and gen screening tool by completely disrupting the target genes compared to other contemporary methods. Hence systematic genetic analysis is fostered by means of following this technique as evident in the mammalian cells such as that in the mouse non-embryonic stem cells (non ESCs) (Wang et al. 2014). Non embryonic stem cells or adult stem cells play a vital role in forward genetics to assess the phenotype in the diseased organism. The adult stem cells are thought to be undifferentiated cells residing in stem cell niche found among differentiated cells of the tissue organ. The maintenance and repair of the tissues in which the non-embryonic stem cells are found constitute the major functions of these cells and have the ability to give rise to some or nearly all of the bodily tissues because of their multipotent activity. A study relevant to the non-embryonic stem cells provided the evidence for differentiation of these cells into cells having a pancreatic lineag e thereby showcasing the efficacy of the forward genetics concept (Verfaillie et al. 2013). A forward genetic screen in mouse utilizing the non-ESCs method was carried out to study the sleep behavior in mice as a whole that may be referred to in this regard. At first an electroencephalogram or electromyogram based screening method of randomly mutagenised mice were done to detect the dominant mutations that influence the sleep and wakefulness. A significant reduction in the total wake time because of an increased necessity to sleep was evident following a splicing mutation in the Sik3 protein kinase gene. SIK3 was detected to have a role in the homeostatic regulation of the amount of sleep. Further probe in this matter revealed that increased excitability and discharge of the REM inhibiting neurons cause for the decline in the total amount and duration of REM sleep owing to a missense, gain of function mutation in the sodium leak channel (NALCN). Hence, the sleep pattern behavior in mice may be substantially studied and the role of SIK3 and NALCN may be comprehensively understood in regulating the NREM and REM sleep through forward genetics analysis utilizing the non embryonic murine stem cells (Funato et al. 2016). References Doetschman, T., Gregg, R.G., Maeda, N., Hooper, M.L., Melton, D.W., Thompson, S. and Smithies, O., 1986. Targetted correction of a mutant HPRT gene in mouse embryonic stem cells.Nature,330(6148), pp.576-578. Funato, H., Miyoshi, C., Fujiyama, T., Kanda, T., Sato, M., Wang, Z., Ma, J., Nakane, S., Tomita, J., Ikkyu, A. and Kakizaki, M., 2016. Forward-genetics analysis of sleep in randomly mutagenized mice.Nature,539(7629), pp.378-383. Neri, F., Incarnato, D., Krepelova, A., Rapelli, S., Pagnani, A., Zecchina, R., Parlato, C. and Oliviero, S., 2013. Genome-wide analysis identifies a functional association of Tet1 and Polycomb repressive complex 2 in mouse embryonic stem cells.Genome biology,14(8), p.1. Takahashi, J.S., Pinto, L.H. and Vitaterna, M.H., 1994. Forward and reverse genetic approaches to behavior in the mouse.Science (New York, NY),264(5166), p.1724. Takahashi, K. and Yamanaka, S., 2006. Induction of pluripotent stem cells from mouse embryonic and adult fibroblast cultures by defined factors.cell,126(4), pp.663-676. Verfaillie, C.M., Velez, M.A.B. and Heremans, Y.P., Regents Of The University Of Minnesota, 2013.Differentiation of non-embryonic stem cells to cells having a pancreatic phenotype. U.S. Patent 8,409,859. Wang, H., Yang, H., Shivalila, C.S., Dawlaty, M.M., Cheng, A.W., Zhang, F. and Jaenisch, R., 2013. One-step generation of mice carrying mutations in multiple genes by CRISPR/Cas-mediated genome engineering.Cell,153(4), pp.910-918. Wang, T., Wei, J.J., Sabatini, D.M. and Lander, E.S., 2014. Genetic screens in human cells using the CRISPR-Cas9 system.Science,343(6166), pp.80-84.